In spite of its area of 301 380 square miles, the present territory of Turkey represents only a minute fraction of the ancient Ottoman Empire. It corresponds -apart from a portion oi Thrace-to the peninsula of Anatolia (Anadolu), whose name is derived from that of the Byzantine province situated to the east (AnatolOs) of the capital. This area is also frequently referred to as Asia Minor, a name that gives a good idea of the nature of the country, since it offers in effect a miniature version of the continent of Asia, consisting as it docs of high harsh steppelands surrounded by a succession of wooded and relatively luxuriant slopes. The contrast is the same, on a more modest scale, as that between Upper Asia and the monsoon regions.
This area on which the Turkish nation fell back, after the dislocation of the empire, to take coherent and final form had, since the Middle Ages, been populated by nomads from the steppes of Central Asia who found there an environment singularly resembling that in which their way of life had originated. The phenomenon of the”Turkization”of Anatolia-while the warmer Persian and Syrian deserts remained the preserve of the Arab nomads and the old settled Iranian populations can be understood only by a consideration of the physical environment.
The Anatolian Mass
The major factor is that of the geological uplift of Asia Minor, which has made it a veritable continental mass, a small-scale replica of Asia, in which arc recreated -despite its position in the Mediterranean zone those climatic conditions that attracted the nomads. The average altitude -3700 feet —is greater than that of the Alps or the Pyrenees.
This process of uplift, which undoubtedly continued until the Quaternary and even to the present day (Anatolia is still subject to geological upheavals) is basically linked with tertiary orogeny. According to the classic view, which is that most generally accepted by today’s geologists, Asia Minor consists of three main crystalline masses that were formerly united the chains of Caria and the Menderes, the chain of Konya, and the chain of Kirsehir, linked across the plateau by covering folds that are more or less extensions of the two large longitudinal fold zones, the Pontic chains to the north and the large complex arc of the Taurus to the south, these being eastern branches of the Alpine orogenic systems connected with the chains of Iran and the Himalayas. To the east (Armenia) the bordering fold zones approach and merge, while the uplift attains its maximum height, being 6600 feet and more at the level of the plateau, which is broken by narrow geological depressions and topped by even higher sectors.
Thus several regional types of relief can be distinguished:
1. The Anatolian plateau is relatively varied. It is broken by numerous small ranges caused by geological upheaval; these have been only very partially reduced by erosion originating in the closed basins that constitute the local base levels and have contained lakes since the Neogene. The banked-up plains and lake basins are always rapidly succeeded by mountainous blocks that have to be crossed by passes. The highest points of the plateau are, however, the large volcanic cones of Mt Ararat (the Agri Dag, 16 916 feet), the Suphan Dag (14 543 feet) north of Lake Van, and Mt Argaeus (the Erciyas Dag) overlooking Kayseri. Around them are vast volcanic deposits covering whole regions, particularly in the north-east of Anatolia (near the Russian frontier, the Plateau of Kars), north of Ankara, in Cappadocia, and in the Aegean area (Phrygia and the region between Balıkesir and Manisa).
2. The marginal chains (the Pontic and Taurus systems), on the other hand, are young fold mountains, broken by active regressive erosion from the Mediterranean and the Black Sea into varied structural forms. But the strictly local glacial action was not sufficient to effect a more open type of relief, even though there are some Alpine-type peaks of over 8000 feet, and the main valleys are mostly deep transversal gorges, which make communications extremely difficult. The various regional sectors must be carefully distinguished.
The Pontic chains are relatively low to the west of Samsun, where they rarely exceed 6560 feet. Small regularly folded chains surround little longitudinal troughs faulted synclinal areas and the% roads slip easily from one to another. It is only to the east of the yesil Irmak delta that a large continuous barrier appears (the Kackar Daglari, 12 916 feet), strongly marked by glacial action and Alpine in type.
The Taurus chains break away from the crystalline ranges of Caria in a somewhat confused series of isolated ranges (the BozDag, the Sandras Dag) rarely more than 6500 feet high. The first well-marked curve starts at the Lycian Peninsula that of the Western Taurus (Bey Daglari, 12 248 feet), which stretches as far as Pisidia. Then the large curve of the Central Taurus sweeps south, giving the coastline its shape (the Ala Dag,
12 283 feet). To the north of the Cilician plain is the Anti-Taurus, running south-west to north-east, and the mountainous girdle widens and merges with the highlands of Eastern Anatolia, where the southern part (the Eastern Taurus) reaches a height of
13 640 feet at Mts Cilo near the Iraqi frontier. The predominance in the Taurus chains of limestone rocks and in particular of enormous masses of cretaceous limestone make them somewhat fearsome mountains with vast desolate stretches, bereft of life except in the karstic depressions where the water is concentrated sink-holes dispersed through the rocks or vast poljes subject to temporary flooding.
3. On the Aegean side, however, the Anatolian mass breaks up. Long geological faults running from east to west contain the great rivers flowing into the Aegean from the plateau: the Greater and Lesser Menderes, the Gediz, the Bakir.
They divide the land into narrow ridges sometimes attaining a height of more than 6550 feet (the Boz Dag in Lydia), but sloping down gradually towards the sea where they peter out in peninsulas and islands.
The coastline is directly affected by the topographical features just described. The Mediterranean and Pontic coasts generally are of the longitudinal Pacific type, running parallel to the adjoining ranges with relatively few indentations and sheltered spots.
The Aegean coasts, which in general are orthogonal to the mountains (Atlantic type) are much more irregular and contain a great many more natural harbours.
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